The common raven (Corvus corax) is a large all-black passerine bird. It is the most widely distributed of all corvids, found across the Northern Hemisphere. It is a raven known by many names at the subspecies level; there are at least eight subspecies with little variation in appearance, although recent research has demonstrated significant genetic differences among populations from various regions. It is one of the two largest corvids, alongside the thick-billed raven, and is possibly the heaviest passerine bird; at maturity, the common raven averages 63 centimetres (25 inches) in length and 1.2 kilograms (2.6 pounds) in mass. Although their typical lifespan is considerably shorter, common ravens can live more than 23 years in the wild. Young birds may travel in flocks but later mate for life, with each mated pair defending a territory.
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The common raven was one of the many species originally described, with its type locality given as Europe, by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, and it still bears its original name of Corvus corax.[2] It is the type species of the genus Corvus, derived from the Latin word for 'raven'.[3] The specific epithet corax is the Latinized form of the Greek word κόραξ, meaning 'raven' or 'crow'.[4]
The name C. c. laurencei (also spelt lawrencii or laurencii) is sometimes used instead of C. c. subcorax.[11] It is based on the population from Sindh described by Hume in 1873[14] and is sometimes preferred, since the type specimen of subcorax collected by Nikolai Severtzov is possibly a brown-necked raven.[15]
Citation: Blum CR, Fitch WT and Bugnyar T (2020) Rapid Learning and Long-Term Memory for Dangerous Humans in Ravens (Corvus corax). Front. Psychol. 11:581794. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.581794
First confirmed breeding record of Northern Raven Corvus corax in Lebanon for over four decades and recent records in Lebanon of Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus, Pin-tailed Sandgrouse Pterocles alchata and Black-bellied Sandgrouse P. orientalis
Northern Raven Corvus coraxOn 13 April 2012 we observed a Northern Raven leaving one of the rocky cliffs at Qalaat Niha, central Lebanon (Plate 1), flying north, but after 100 m he returned cawing to chase away two Short-toed Eagles Circaetus gallicus that were in courtship, with outstretched necks, near the cliffs. We immediately recognized that the Northern Raven (Plate 2) must be defending its nest or chicks but we were still lacking real proof. A visit to the site on 8 February 2013 revealed the presence of five Northern Ravens (Plate 3). On 9 March 2013, we visited the site at 09.30 h with the hope of seeing the bird again but instead we watched a tribe of hyraxes on nearby sunny rocks. However, before we left at 10.45 h, the Northern Raven appeared with a bundle of fine sticks in its beak flying to the same previously frequented cliff. This observation of the carrying of nesting material confirmed breeding by Northern Raven, the first record of breeding by this species for over 43 years in Lebanon. A Northern Raven was seen, by a group of birdwatching trainees, nesting again (carrying food) at Qalaat Niha on 4 April 2014.
Warne, London.BirdLife International. 2014. Species factsheet: Corvus corax. www.birdlife.org. [Downloaded 06/02/2014]. Jennings, MC. 2010. Atlas of breeding birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25.Kirwan, GM, RP Martins, G Eken & P Davidson. 1998. A checklist of the birds of Turkey. Sandgrouse, Suppl
Limited access to the carrion of domestic pig and wild boar in our study did not influence the breeding success of the raven population, which was around 60% in the two periods. In other European studies, reproductive success varied from 42% in the Shetland Islands [15] to over 90% in Western Poland [52]. The latter case involved populations nesting on high-voltage poles in an open landscape. The juvenile production per breeding pair did not differ between the studied periods, however was slightly lower per successful pair in the second period. Nevertheless, those parameters did not differ much from the results of other European populations [18,46,53]. The highest productivities per breeding pair and per successful pair, 3.3 and 4.1 juveniles, respectively, were recorded in Denmark review in Reference [4]. Limited access to carrion in our study did not influence the time when juveniles left their nests, and in both periods birds started to lay eggs at the turn of February and March. Nevertheless, many authors point to the relationship between food availability and the onset of egg-laying in birds [54,55,56].
A similar case of changes in carrion availability and its influence on scavenger population was reported in Western Europe, where abundant carcasses of domestic animals permitted the existence and growth of huge vulture populations. However, from 2000 onwards, European Union (EU) sanitary legislation due to the appearance of bovine spongiform encephalopathy progressively limited the abandonment of dead animals in the field, resulting in a sudden reduction of food availability. This influenced the diet of some vulture species (i.e., griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)), which consumed significant amounts of wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and garbage as a result [57]. Moreover, a decrease in breeding success, an increase in mortality in young age classes, an increase in the number of cases of vultures attacking and killing cattle, and a halt in population growth, were observed in vulture population [58]. The case of the Pyrenean bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) population, showed a delay in laying dates and a regressive trend in clutch size, breeding success, and survival, following this policy change [59].
Like in rooks, the main unit of raven sociality is the long-term pair bond between the breeding male and female, which also functions as an alliance in conflicts with conspecifics47. Unlike rooks, breeding is restricted to those pairs who succeed in defending a territory; depending on the availability of suitable territories, ravens thus experience a prolonged period as non-breeders (which may extend up to 1/3 of their expected life span)48. Non-breeding ravens form groups during foraging, roosting and socializing, with group size ranging from a few to several hundreds or even thousands of birds49 and with the composition of group members changing during the day and across contexts49,50. Despite these high degrees of fission-fusion dynamics, temporarily stable sub-groups can be observed, i.e. certain birds use the same food source/roost repeatedly, over consecutive weeks or years50. Moreover, individuals form multiple highly differentiated affiliative and agonistic relationships with others that comprise qualities51 comparable to those of primates52. Hence, raven non-breeder groups show the above-mentioned characteristics of high social complexity.
How to cite this article: Massen, J. J. M. et al. Tolerance and reward equity predict cooperation in ravens (Corvus corax). Sci. Rep. 5, 15021; doi: 10.1038/srep15021 (2015).
[6.2.1] II. The statue of a pancratiast was made by Lysippus. The athlete was the first to win the pancratium not only from Stratus itself but from the whole of Acarnania, and his name was Xenarces the son of Philandrides. Now after the Persian invasion the Lacedaemonians became keener breeders of horses than any other Greeks. For beside those I have already mentioned, the following horse-breeders from Sparta have their statues set up after that of the Acarnanian athlete Xenarces,4 Lycinus, Arcesilaus, and Lichas his son.
[6.4.10] I have spoken at greater length on this matter in my account of Sparta.17 Euanthes of Cyzicus won prizes for boxing, one among the men at Olympia, and also among the boys at the Nemean and at the Isthmian games. By the side of Euanthes is the statue of a horse-breeder and his chariot; mounted on the chariot is a young maid. The man's name is Lampus, and his native city was the last to be founded in Macedonia, named after its founder Philip, son of Amyntas.
[6.5.4] Others have won glorious victories in the pancratium, but Pulydamas, besides his prizes for the pancratium, has to his credit the following exploits of a different kind. The mountainous part of Thrace, on this side the river Nestus, which runs through the land of Abdera, breeds among other wild beasts lions, which once attacked the army of Xerxes, and mauled the camels carrying his supplies.
[6.18.5] Anaximenes is also known to have retaliated on a personal enemy in a very clever but very ill-natured way. He had a natural aptitude for rhetoric and for imitating the style of rhetoricians. Having a quarrel with Theopompus the son of Damasistratus, he wrote a treatise abusing Athenians, Lacedaemonians and Thebans alike. He imitated the style of Theopompus with perfect accuracy, inscribed his name upon the book and sent it round to the cities. Though Anaximenes was the author of the treatise, hatred of Theopompus grew throughout the length of Greece.
Di Lascio F, Nyffeler F, Bshary R & Bugnyar T (2013) Ravens (Corvus corax) are indifferent to the gains of conspecific recipients or human partners in experimental tasks. Animal Cognition 16, 35-43.
Bergmüller R, Russell AF, Johnstone RA & Bshary R (2007) On the further integration of cooperative breeding and cooperation theory. Behavioural Processes 76, 170-181 2ff7e9595c
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